@article{4eb887717a7047159e515e86b981516b,
title = "Viral emergence in marine mammals in the North Pacific may be linked to Arctic sea ice reduction",
abstract = "Climate change-driven alterations in Arctic environments can influence habitat availability, species distributions and interactions, and the breeding, foraging, and health of marine mammals. Phocine distemper virus (PDV), which has caused extensive mortality in Atlantic seals, was confirmed in sea otters in the North Pacific Ocean in 2004, raising the question of whether reductions in sea ice could increase contact between Arctic and sub-Arctic marine mammals and lead to viral transmission across the Arctic Ocean. Using data on PDV exposure and infection and animal movement in sympatric seal, sea lion, and sea otter species sampled in the North Pacific Ocean from 2001–2016, we investigated the timing of PDV introduction, risk factors associated with PDV emergence, and patterns of transmission following introduction. We identified widespread exposure to and infection with PDV across the North Pacific Ocean beginning in 2003 with a second peak of PDV exposure and infection in 2009; viral transmission across sympatric marine mammal species; and association of PDV exposure and infection with reductions in Arctic sea ice extent. Peaks of PDV exposure and infection following 2003 may reflect additional viral introductions among the diverse marine mammals in the North Pacific Ocean linked to change in Arctic sea ice extent.",
author = "E. VanWormer and Mazet, {J. A.K.} and A. Hall and Gill, {V. A.} and Boveng, {P. L.} and London, {J. M.} and T. Gelatt and Fadely, {B. S.} and Lander, {M. E.} and J. Sterling and Burkanov, {V. N.} and Ream, {R. R.} and Brock, {P. M.} and Rea, {L. D.} and Smith, {B. R.} and A. Jeffers and M. Henstock and Rehberg, {M. J.} and Burek-Huntington, {K. A.} and Cosby, {S. L.} and Hammond, {J. A.} and T. Goldstein",
note = "Funding Information: The authors thank staff from the Alaska Fisheries Science Center{\textquoteright}s Marine Mammal Laboratory (M Cameron, B Dickerson, H Ziel, E Moreland, S Dahl, D Withrow, J Jansen, G Brady, J Ver Hoef, J Harris, R Hobbs), US Fish and Wildlife Service (A Doroff, K Worman, D Jenski, D. Burn, Bonnie Easley-Appleyard), University of Alaska (Z Hoyt, Ginny Eckert), ADF&G (Kimberlee Beckmen, Mandy Keogh, and field and vessel staff on related research cruises), Alaska SeaLife Center (P Tuomi), St. George Traditional Council (H Kashaverof), The Pirbright Institute, Non-Vesicular Disease Reference Laboratory, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (I Hoppe), and the UC Davis One Health Institute Laboratory for contributions to sample collection, diagnostics, and data cleaning. This study was supported by the Morris Animal Foundation (grant D09ZO-019), whose mission is to advance the science of animal health, and the NOAA Oceans and Human Health Graduate Traineeship Program. Additional support was provided by the Alaska Fisheries Science Center Marine Mammal Laboratory and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. JAH and MH were supported by UKRI-BBSRC awards BBS/E/I/00007030, BBS/E/I/00007037, BBS/E/I/00007038 and BBS/E/I/00007039. Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2019, The Author(s).",
year = "2019",
month = dec,
day = "1",
doi = "10.1038/s41598-019-51699-4",
language = "English (US)",
volume = "9",
journal = "Scientific Reports",
issn = "2045-2322",
publisher = "Nature Publishing Group",
number = "1",
}